Literature Review on Employability of Women Essay

Employability of Women†¦ Introduction†¦ Employability in relation to gender, age and race has changed significantly over the years as factors of our society change the way we live and work. As social norms change, so does the spectre of employability. History proves that the employability of women in relation to men has progressively shifted in recent years, as women become increasingly attractive to employers. In the past, it was thought that it was harder for women to gain a job than it was for men, however is this the case in our modern day society? In the past, women have been penalised with lower pay and less hours than men but recent history has stopped these things from occurring with new laws and regulations for employers to follow, such as the Equal Pay Act 1970, which will be looked at in more detail in the review. This literature review will attempt to analyse the differences in the past, and those which are still apparent today between the employability of men and women. Is it harder for a woman to get a job than a man? Firstly, it will cover the history of employability of women. Then the review will try to discover when things started to change and women started to become more employable. Following this it will discuss the employability of women in today’s society. Lastly, will be a conclusion, in which the findings will be reviewed. History of employability of women†¦ Prior to the Second World War, there was a certain stereotype that women were’ housewives’: social roles were clearly defined. A woman’s place was at home, while a man should be at work. It was acceptable for a woman to work outside of the home, providing she did not have a family to look after, but she would have been paid less than a man, even when doing the same job. The Second World War changed everything. As the men left to go to war, the women had to run the home alone, but they also had to get used to going to work. However, ‘It was understood throughout the war that what Britain’s women were doing was really ‘a man’s job’. So many of them were dismissed from their work once peace was declared†¦ In industries that were not heavily unionised, however, some women were kept on – not least because they were cheaper to employ than men.’ (Harris, 2011). Despite all of the work the women did during the war, they were still not truly appreciated and in fact the ‘housewife’ stereotype was still around in the 1970’s, probably due to the men regaining the majority of the work once returning from the war. This is backed up by the Women and Employment Survey in 1980, ‘The collection of employment histories in the Women and Employment Survey (WES) in 1980 started to break down the stereotypes still around in the 1970’s about women’s careers. The tendency had been to think that a woman’s main role was as a mother , working at domestic tasks.’ (Scott, Dex and Joshi, 2008). Even though the stereotype had continued into the 1970’s, it was clear that it was slowly fading, the effort put in by the women during the war was starting to be appreciated, and as a result women were starting to become more employable, as shown by the fact that ‘women constituted 29 per cent of the labour force in Britain in 1911, and 29 per cent in 1951, but this had risen to 34 per cent by 1966 and had reached 43 per cent by 1991’ (Crompton, 1997). In the early 1990’s the rapid increase in the employment of women started to level out. This was largely due to the recession between 1990 and 1992, as the younger, less stable women chose to go back to school rather than seek employment in the recessionary job market. After 1992 though there was a strong economic recovery, which in turn, led to the rise of women in employment, to what it is today. When did it all start to change? The gender composition of the labour force has changed considerably in the twentieth century. Before the Second World War over 90 per cent of all men of working age or more were in employment, and that was mostly unchanged until after the War, but since then the percentage of men in employment steadily declined to only 73 per cent in 1991. On the other hand, ‘Women’s employment has moved in the other direction. Up until the Second World War (1951) only about a third of all women of working age or more were economically active. Since 1951, however, women’s employment has been growing steadily, and by 1991 half of all women of working age or more were economically active.’ (Crompton, 1997). There are a few major reasons for this shift in employability, the first being the Second World War, which went some way towards changing the stereotypes about a woman’s role and making them more employable, as they showed that they were capable of doing the same jobs as a man just as well as they could, if not better in some cases. This has been explained in more detail previously. However, the main reason for the enormous rise in employability of women has to be the introduction of the Equal Pay Act in 1970. The Equal Pay Act 1970 has had a dramatic effect on the way female employees are viewed and the amount of money they are paid, in relation to men over the last forty years ‘Before 1970, it was common practice in the private sector and some parts of the public sector for there to be separate, and lower, women’s rates of pay†¦ The Equal Pay Act introduced an ‘implied equality clause’ into all employees’ contracts. This had the effect of eliminating separate lower women’s rates of pay†¦ women’s average earnings compared to men’s rose by 5%, from 72% to 77%, over a 5 year period in the 1970s – the biggest ever increase in this ratio.’ (Hastings). This was not the only change the Equal Pay Act 1970 caused. The Act also led to the use of job evaluation being used for more frequently, this is where you compare different jobs in order to put them into a rank order based on the difficulty of the work, this would then be the basis for the employees grading and pay, and not the fact that they were a male or female. There were other effects of the Act as well, such as that of the effect on collective bargaining. Over the years there have been many changes in technology and the way businesses are run which has led to the old collective bargaining arrangements becoming out-dated, but it is not only because of the changes in technology, equal pay legislation has also had an impact. Due to these factors, collective bargaining arrangements in many organisations have been harmonised. Employability of women in today’s society†¦ Since the Equal Pay Act was passed, the gap between the average hourly pay of men and that of women has drastically decreased. However, ‘It is 40 years since the Equal Pay Act and yet women working full-time in the UK are still paid on average 15.5% less per hour than men†¦ That is one of the biggest gaps in the European Union and Britain appears to be becoming a tougher place still for women to work. The recession has seen many part-time jobs go; the majority of such jobs are held by women. Over the last 12 months, 4.5% of the female workforce experienced redundancy compared with just 3% of men.’ (Allen, 2011), illustrating that despite the vast increase in the employability of women, a difference still exists today, albeit a considerably smaller one. In today’s society, it has been shown that girls remain in education for longer than boys, and also achieve higher grades. This could help to further explain why women are far more employable now than they have been in the past, and this trend only looks to continue in the future. Yet, the reason for the rise in employability of women today is it not only due to the laws that have been imposed; it is also due to the change in status of women in today’s society. As, women have become more powerful, it is clear that businesses should employ more women and treat them equally to their male workers, if not only to protect themselves from law suits, then to enhance the reputation and customer base of their business and reap the reap the rewards financially. ‘Research in Europe and the United States suggests†¦ that companies with several senior-level women tend to perform better financially.’ (Georges, Sandrine, Mary C., 2008). Conclusion†¦ By looking through the history and changes of female employability and at what it is like today, you can clearly see how society has gradually changed their views from the sexist view that was adopted by men, and some women, before the Second World War, to the very much equal society we have today. However, is it really equal in today’s society? The research shows, that despite the colossal rise in the employability of women and slight decline in the employability of men, there are still some differences, for example the fact that ‘†¦women working full-time in the UK are still paid on average 15.5% less per hour than men†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Allen, 2011), this is not acceptable, but unfortunately there may always be a difference, even if it is a very slight one. References†¦ Allen, K. (2011) ‘Women look away now: you are working for free’ The Guardian, 4th November 2011 [Online] [Accessed 14 November 2011] Crompton, R. (1997) Women and Work in Modern Britain. 2nd Impression Edition, Oxford: OUP Oxford Desvaux, G., Devillard-Hoellinger, S., Meaney, M. (2008) A business case for women. Mckinsey Quarterly. Issue 4, p26-33 Harris, C. (2011) ‘Women Under Fire in World War Two’ BBC, 17th February 2011 [Online] [Accessed 14 November 2011] Hastings, S. ‘The Equal Pay Act: It’s Impact on Collective Bargaining, Grading and Pay’ [Online] [Accessed 14 November 2011] Scott, J., Dex, S., Joshi, H. (2009) ‘Women and Employment: Changing Lives and New Challenges’. Edward Edgar Publishing Ltd Reflective Report†¦ How I found Literature Review. My first thoughts when being set this assignment were ones of panic and anxiety. I was a little apprehensive of how to approach it as I was unsure about what it consisted of, and how to go about writing it. This concern was increased as it was the first assignment I have been set since joining the university so I was not sure whether it would be up to the standards of the university. As I started to get into the review, it started to become easier, although, I did still have trouble with the referencing, and was uncertain of the best way to layout the review. I found turnitin very easy to use, and I liked the idea of being able to check my work was acceptable before finally submitting it. On the whole though I feel that this assignment, although challenging, was extremely worthwhile and will stand me in good stead for the future, especially using turnitin as I will now easily be able to hand in my future assignments. Meeting my mentor. My mentor rung me and we arranged to meet at the canteen in Mithras House. My first impressions of James were that he seemed a very nice approachable guy, which, indeed he was. We started talking and he asked me how I was finding University life, both the social side of it and the work load. I responded by telling him that I was very much enjoying the social side of university as I have enjoyed meeting all new people and making new friends. I then proceeded to add that I was finding some of the workload quite hard as it is a big step up from A-levels, but also that I found it all extremely interesting, especially the Marketing, Law and Economic elements of the course, which has made it easier to read up on it as I am interesting in it. Subsequently, we then mutually decided on some goals that I could set myself, they were as follows; Firstly, we set the target that I must achieve a high 2.1 or a 1st at the end of the course. Secondly, was the target that I must find a job. The last target was that I must meet all of my deadlines and attend all of my lectures and seminars, unless there were extenuating circumstances. James then gave me his e-mail address and told me to contact him if I needed any help with anything in the future. Lastly, we arranged another date to meet and then we both parted ways. Personal SWOT†¦ What are my strengths? What do I already have that I might be able to build on?I feel that one of my strengths is my existing knowledge of businesses and how they operate. I gained this knowledge through research I conducted in A-Level. Good Presentation is another thing I view as a strength of mine.| What are my weaknesses / areas for development?I believe my main weakness is the speed at which I work. This directly contrasts with one of my strengths (Good presentation) as I try to make everything look neat and therefore spend longer than I should on the work.| What opportunities do you see to develop yourself?I have a vast amount of opportunities available to me at Brighton University. These opportunities include; Teachers to give me advice when I get stuck on something, Libraries so I can easily find the books/journals I might need to help me write my essays, Other students who I can ask for their input on my work and how I could improve it (Peer Review)| What threats do you see to your personal development, or barriers that may need to be overcome?

Project on Spy Ear

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION, CIRCIT DIAGRAM AND WORKING INTRODUCTION Spy ear is the devices which converts low power audio signal to high power signal and gain. It can be used in Theaters , Concert halls, Lecture rooms, Trains, Court houses, Conference rooms, Embassies, Gaming facilities, Recording studios, Aircraft , railways ,bus station etc. With this sound amplifier, you can now hear things crystal clear that you could never hear before. Spy ear is very easy to use, just put the ear buds in your ears – aim the Spy Ear towards what you want to hear and things are heard crystal clear.Spy Ear has adjustable volume control, which amplifies sound up to 50 decibels. Spy ear is also great for watching TV late at night, while your spouse sleeps you can keep the sound on the TV way down and still hear clearly. In spy ear circuit the most important part which is used to amplify the ckt is An IC named LM386N, which is a low sound amplifier, it amplifies the sound which is received by the condenser mic connected in the ckt. The LM386 is a power amplifier designed for use in low voltage consumer applications.The gain is internally set to 20 to keep external part count low, but the addition of an external resistor and capacitor between pins 1 and 8 will increase the gain to any value from 20 to 200. The inputs are ground referenced while the output automatically biases to one-half the supply voltage. The quiescent power drain is only 24 mill watts when operating from a 6 volt supply, making the LM386 ideal for battery operation. Spy ear is widely using in the spy works. Many spy agencies, National Security Agencies using both wired and wireless spy ears to hear the private conversation and to cought any illegal person doing any illegal work.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM [pic] WORKING What binoculars do to improve your vision, this personal sound enhancer circuit does for listening. This lightweight gadget produces an adjustable gain on sounds picked up from the built-in high-sensiti vity condenser microphone. So you can hear what you have been missing. With a 6V (4? 1. 5V) battery, it produces good results. a small signal amplifier is built around transistor BC547 (T1). Transistor T1 and the related. components amplify the sound signals picked up by the condenser microphone (MIC).The amplified signal from the preamplifier stage is fed to input pin 3 of IC LM386N (IC1) through capacitor C2 (100nF) and volume control VR1 (10-kilo-ohm log). A decoupling network comprising resistor R5 and capacitor C3 provides the preamplifier block with a clean supply voltage. Audio amplifier IC LM386N (IC1) is designed for operation with power supplies in the 4-15V DC range. It is housed in a standard 8-pin DIL package, consumes very small quiescent current and is ideal for battery-powered portable applications. The processed output signal from capacitor C2 goes to one end of volume control VR1.The wiper is taken to pin 3 of LM386N audio output amplifier. Note that the R6-C4 netw ork is used to RF-decouple positive-supply pin 6 and R8-C7 is an optional Zobel network that ensures high frequency stability when feeding an inductive headphone load. Capacitor C6 (22? F, 16V) wired between pin 7 and ground gives additional ripple rejection. The output of LM386N power amplifier can safely drive a standard 32-ohm monophonic headphone/earphone. Assemble the circuit on a small general-purpose PCB and house in a suitable metallic enclosure with an integrated battery holder and headphone/ earphone socket as shown in .Fit the on/off switch (S1), volume control (VR1) and power indicator (LED1) on the enclosure. Finally, fit the condenser microphone (MIC) on the front side of the enclosure and link it to the input of the preamplifier via a short length of the shielded wire. CHAPTER 2 COMPONENTS AND TOOLS USED COMPONENT USED COMPONENT NAMESPECIFICATION QUANTITY RESISTANCES R14. 7K? 1 R2330K? 1 R333? 1 R4680? 1 R5150? 1 R610? 1 R71K? 1 R810? , 0. 5W1 CAPACITANCES C110n(Non P olar)1 C2100n(Non Polar)1 C347 µ(elec. ) , 16V(Polar)1 C41000 µ(elec. ) , 16V(Polar)1 C54. 7 µ(elec. ) , 16V(Polar)1 C622 µ(elec. ) , 16V(Polar)1 C7100n(Non Polar)1C8100 µ(elec. ) , 16V(Polar)1 C9100n(Non Polar)1 C10470 µ(elec. ) , 16V(Polar)1 VOLUME CONTROLLER VR110K? 1 TRANSISTOR T1BC5471 ICLM386N1 IC BASE8-PIN1 LED1 CONDENSER MIC1 EARPHONE32? 1 BATTERIES1. 5V4 BATTERIES HOLDER1 HOLDER CAP1 SWITCH1 PCBSINGLE SIDED1 TOOLS USED IN PCB DESIGNING COMPONENTQUANTITY SAW1 FeCl31 [pic] MULTIMETER1 [pic] HAND DRILLER1 [pic] SOLDERING IRON1 [pic] SOLDERING PASTE1 [pic] SOLDERING WIRE1 [pic] CHAPTER 3 PREPARATION AND PROCESS OF PCB DESIGNING Materials: ? Liquid solutions:- Ferric Chloride (Fecl3), Ferric chloride solution,  about 1 liter/ 0,26 gallons Lacquer thinner Safety solutions:- Safety goggles, Soft plastic brush, Clothes iron, Rubber gloves ? layout solutions:- Software for drawing layout. Like:- 1. P-Spice 2. ExpressPCB 3. PCB Wizard 3. 50 Pro 4. EDWinXP ? Good quality magazine pages (A4 Size) (Glossy paper), ? Laser printer ? Scrubbing pad ? Good ventilation ? Paper towel, ? Tin snips ? Drill or rotary tool ? PCB drill bits ? 5-gallon plastic pail full of water ? Single sided 1 ounce copper clad ? A plastic container the board will fit in PREPARATION Print the bottom side layer on a piece of paper from a high quality magazine or Glossy paper.Use one actual page from the magazine or Glossy paper, the thicker and shinier the magazine paper the better, but do not use the cover. You must use a laser printer, not an inkjet. If your printer uses ink cartridges and not toner cartridges, it will not work. If you do not have a laser printer, you can work around this by printing to white paper and using a photocopier set to the darkest setting to copy the layout to the magazine paper. If the paper jams in the printer, you are not using a thick-enough magazine pages. Again, do not use the magazine covers, as they do not work.Magazine pages are used because they work well, and they are cheap! The reason they work is because the paper is very glossy and the toner does not adhere well to the glossy pages. The printing used on the magazine page is ink and it does not come off, but toner does. Toner  is actually a plastic polymer, and different toners may yield varied results. In our experience, a genuine HP toner cartridge was used with great success. The sole purpose of the toner is the protect the copper below it from etching away; you only want the uncovered areas to etch. Next, wash your hands to remove any oils.Keep handling to a minimum once the pages are printed and do not touch the laser printing with your fingers; this could get oils on the printing. Keep pages as flat as possible. [pic][pic] Very carefully, remove the copper clad from the packaging. Do not touch the copper surface for the same reason as above. You can cut the copper clad to size using a tin snip if needed. Use the scrubbing pad to gently buff the surface. Do not use steel wool because it will embed steel into the copper. Clean off the residual dust with a slightly damp paper towel. [pic] Find a hard, very flat, sturdy, heat resistant surface.Empty the water out of the clothes iron and set the iron on the hottest setting. Allow the iron to get hot. [pic] This is both side of a piece of copper clad. Place the blank side facing down and copper side facing up. Align printing/paper onto copper clad board with the printing facing the copper. Do not allow it to move. [pic] [pic] Firmly press the iron onto the back of the magazine paper, sandwiching it between the copper clad and the iron. Pressing hard without moving the iron, hold the iron perfectly still for one full minute. Do not move the iron at all during this minute, and push hard, really hard!Then, for four more minutes, slowly move the iron around making sure to put a lot of pressure on the paper, but not allowing the paper to slide on the copper. When done, let the board fully cool b efore you move it at all. This will allow the toner to adhere to the copper and prevent you from being burned. Put the board in cold water and let soak for five minutes. After five minutes, try to peel the wet paper from the board leaving only the toner/print from your laser printer. Only the toner should be left adhering to the copper. If the paper does not come off easily, let it soak in the water for a while longer.If necessary, rub with your finger to remove any paper, leaving only the toner. It’s ok if there are a few excess paper fibers stuck to the toner. [pic][pic] [pic] If you find not every trace adhered to the copper clad or it is misaligned, use lacquer thinner and paper towel to clean the toner from the copper board and start over. If the traces look good then move on. Inspect the traces carefully, however, because what you see now will be your finished product. [pic] In a well-ventilated area with a fan, add hot water to a plastic container. Gently pour in 1-cup Fecl3, to create the etching solution.Always wear goggles, gloves, and do not inhale the fumes. Do not use any metal containers, measuring cups, stainless steel sinks, or tools with this mixture as this mixture will aggressively etch metal. Acid safety, think â€Å"triple A†, for Always Add the Acid, it’s whatever is in the container that will end up splashing. This etching solution, while made with common chemicals, should command respect. It is dangerous to you and surroundings treat it with respect. Put the board copper side up in the plastic container filled with etching solution. Use a soft plastic brush to gently wipe the board.You will notice the copper begin to dissolve. It takes about 3-4 minutes to get all the exposed copper dissolved. You just have to watch to make sure it is gone in all areas between the traces. Do not leave the board in the etching mix for too long as the traces will dissolve under the toner that is protecting them. [pic]  [pic] Use lac quer thinner (paint thinner and acetone do not work well) and a paper towel to remove any toner left on top of the copper traces. Tinning prevents the copper from oxidizing, which can make it hard to solder to in the future.If you choose, you can tin all the traces with solder and a soldering iron now. This actually makes drilling much easier because it helps to center the drill bit [pic] Print out the top side silkscreen layer on magazine paper and iron this onto the top side, using the same processes as above. Again, run under water and peel off the paper. Now you have the component ID’s on the top side. For layout design we use software: 1. P-Spice 2. ExpressPCBSetup 3. PCB Wizard 3. 50 Pro 4. EDWinXP Drill all the holes for the through-hole parts using the correct size PCB drill bit and rotary tool.Drill large mounting holes with a normal drill. PCB drill bits are carbide and made to drill through fiber glass that would quickly dull standard bits. There are a few very com mon sizes of bits and these are often sold in packs. We use . 0260? for IC holes and . 0310? for resistors and caps. [pic] CHAPTER 4 RESISTANCES [pic] INTRODUCTION A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the onstant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R further â€Å"resists† the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law: [pic] UNITS The ohm (symbol: ? ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of Milliohm (1 m? = 10? 3 ? ), Kilohm (1 k? = 103 ? ), Megohm (1 M? = 106 ? ) are also in common usage. Resistance is Determined partially by Compo sition,  and is inversely proportional to Cross Sectional Area. [pic]SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTORS In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage) seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as the sum of those resistances: [pic] [pic] As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance R is given by NR. Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference (voltage), however the currents through them add.The conductance of the resistors then adds to determine the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be computed: [pic] [pic] The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines â€Å"||† (as in geometry) as a simplified not ation. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this can be calculated using: [pic] As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in parallel, each of the same resistance R, is given by R/N.A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance, [pic] [pic] POWER DISSIPATION The power P dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is calculated as: [pic] The first form is a restatement of Joule's first law. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived. The total amount of heat energy released over a period of time can be determined from the integral of the power over that period of time: [pic] Practical resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation.The vast majority of resistors used in electronic circuits absorbs much less than a watt of electrical power and require no attention to their power rating. Such resistors in their discrete form, including most of the packages detailed below, are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt. Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in power supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to as power resistors; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt or greater.Power resistors are physically larger and tend not to use the preferred values, color codes, and external packages described below. If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously.Note that the nominal power rating of a resistor is not the same as the power that it can safely dissipate in practical use. Air circulation and proximity to a circuit board, ambient temperature, and other factors can reduce acceptable dissipation significantly. Rated power dissipation may be given for an ambient temperature of 25  °C in free air. Inside an equipment case at 60  °C, rated dissipation will be significantly less; a resistor dissipating a bit less than the maximum figure given by the manufacturer may still be outside the safe operating area and may prematurely fail.TYPES OF RESISTER Fixed  resistors Variable resistors FIXED RESISTORS The diagram shows the construction of a carbon film resistor. During manufacture, a thin film of carbon is deposited onto a small ceramic rod. The resistive coating is spiraled away in an automatic machine until the resistance between the two ends of the rod is as close as possibl e to the correct value. Metal leads and end caps are added; the resistor is covered with an insulating coating and finally painted with colored bands to indicate the resistor value.Carbon film resistors are cheap and easily available, with values within  ±10% or  ±5% of their marked or ‘nominal' value. Metal film and metal oxide resistors are made in a similar way, but can be made more accurately to within  ±2% or  ±1% of their nominal value. There are some differences in performance between these resistor types, but none which affect their use in simple circuits. COLOUR CODING OF THE RESISTERS [pic] [pic] [pic] VARIABLE RESISTORS Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a wiper which moves along th track as you turn the spindle.The track may be made from carbon, cermets (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low resistances). The track is usually rotary but straight track versions, usually called sliders, are also available. TYPE OF VARIABLE RESISTORS Linear (LIN) and Logarithmic (LOG) tracks Rheostat Potentiometer Presets LINEAR (LIN) AND LOGARITHMIC (LOG) TRACKS Linear (LIN) track means that the resistance changes at a constant rate as you move the wiper. Logarithmic (LOG) track means that the resistance changes slowly at one end of the track and rapidly at the other end, so halfway along the track is not half the total resistance!This arrangement is used for volume (loudness) controls because the human ear has a logarithmic response to loudness so fine control (slow change) is required at low volumes and coarser control (rapid change) at high volumes. It is important to connect the ends of the track the correct way round, if you find that turning the spindle increases the volume rapidly followed by little further change you should swap the connections to the ends of the track. RHEOSTAT This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor.Two terminals are used: one connected to an end of the track, the other to the moveable wiper. Turning the spindle changes the resistance between the two terminals from zero up to the maximum resistance. [pic] If the rheostat is mounted on a printed circuit board you may find that all three terminals are connected! However, one of them will be linked to the wiper terminal. This improves the mechanical strength of the mounting but it serves no function electrically. POTENTIOMETER Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals connected.These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in projects where a standard variable resistor would normally be used. [pic] PRESETS Multitier presets are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw must be turned many times (10+) to move the slider from one en d of the track to the other, giving very fine control. [pic] |[pic] |[pic] | |Preset |Presets |Multitier preset | |(open style) |(closed style) | | | | | | | | | |CHAPTER 5 CAPACITANCES [pic] INTRODUCTION |A capacitor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field. In its simplest form, a capacitor consists of two | |conducting plates separated by an insulating material called the dielectric. Capacitance is directly proportional to the surface areas of the plates, and is | |inversely proportional to the plates' separation. | |Capacitance also depends on the dielectric constant of the dielectric material separating the plates. | | |Capacitance calculated as XY x 10Z  for the numbers XYZ and the letter indicates the tolerance J, K or M for  ±5%,  ±10% and  ±20% respectively and unit is in pF. | |The standard units of Capacitance, | |farad: F   | |microfarad:  µF (1  µF = 10-6 F) |nanofarad: nF (1 nF = 10-9 F)   | |microfara d: pF (1 pF = 10-12 F) | | | | | | | |FOR CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL | |Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same applied voltage. Their capacitances add up.Charge is apportioned among them by size. Using the | |schematic diagram to visualize parallel plates, it is apparent that each capacitor contributes to the total surface area. | |[pic] | | | |FOR CAPACITORS IN SERIES | |Connected in series, the schematic diagram reveals that the separation distance, not the plate area, adds up.The capacitors each store instantaneous charge | |build-up equal to that of every other capacitor in the series. The total voltage difference from end to end is apportioned to each capacitor according to the | |inverse of its capacitance. The entire series acts as a capacitor  smaller  than any of its components. | |[pic] | |Capacitors are combined in series to achieve a higher working voltage, for example for smoothing a high voltage power supply. The voltage ratings, which are | |base d on plate separation, add up.In such an application, several series connections may in turn be connected in parallel, forming a matrix. The goal is to | |maximize the energy storage utility of each capacitor without overloading it. | |Series connection is also used to adapt  electrolytic capacitors  for AC use. | | | |CAPACITOR MAY BE: | |Polarized | |Unpolrized | |POLARIZED CAPACITOR(VALUE MAX THAN 1  µF) | pic] Circuit symbol:   Ã‚  [pic] ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and  they must be connected the correct way round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when soldering. There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors;  axial  where the leads are attached to each end (220 µF in picture) and  radial  where both leads are at the same end (10 µF in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit board. It is easy to find the value of electr olytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their capacitance and voltage rating.The voltage rating can be quite low (6V for example) and it should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. If the project parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project's power supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits. TANTALUM BEAD CAPACITORS Tantalum bead capacitors are polarized and have low voltage ratings like electrolytic capacitors. They are expensive but very small, so they are used where a large capacitance is needed in a small size. Modern tantalum bead capacitors are printed with their capacitance, voltage and polarity in full.However older ones use a color-code system which has two stripes (for the two digits) and a spot of color for the number of zeros to give the value in  µF. The standard  colour code  is used, but for the spot,  grey  is used to mean ? 0. 01 and   white  means ? 0. 1 so that values of less than 10 µF can be shown. A third color stripe near the leads shows the voltage (yellow 6. 3V, black 10V, green 16V, blue 20V, grey 25V, white 30V, pink 35V). The positive (+) lead is to the right when the spot is facing you: ‘when the spot is in sight, the positive is to the right'.For example:   Ã‚  blue, grey, black spot  Ã‚   means 68 µF for example:   Ã‚  blue, grey, white spot  Ã‚   means 6. 8 µF For example:   Ã‚  blue, grey, grey spot  Ã‚   means 0. 68 µF UNPOLARIZED CAPACITOR(MAX. VALUE UPTO 1  µF) [pic] Circuit symbol:   Ã‚  [pic] Small value capacitors are Unpolrized and may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so. It can be difficult to find the values of these small capacitors because there are many types of them and several different labeling system s!Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be! For example  0. 1  means 0. 1 µF = 100nF. Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:   For example:   Ã‚  4n7  means 4. 7nF. POLYSTYRENE CAPACITORS This type is rarely used now. Their value (in pF) is normally printed without units. Polystyrene capacitors can be damaged by heat when soldering (it melts the polystyrene! ) so you should use a heat sink (such as a crocodile clip). Clip the heat sink to the lead between the capacitor and the joint. | | | | | | | VARIABLE CAPACITORS Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called ‘tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and 500pF (100pF  =  0. 0001 µF). The type illustrated usually has trimmers built in (for making small adjustments – see below) as well as the main variable capacitor. Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are not suitable for the standard knobs used for variable resistors and rotary switches. It would be wise to check that a suitable knob is available before ordering a variable capacitor.Variable capacitors are  not  normally used in timing circuits because their capacitance is too small to be practical and the range of values available is very limited. Instead timing circuits use a fixed capacitor and a variable resistor if it is necessary to vary the time period. [pic][pic] Variable Capacitor Symbol Variable Capacitor | | | | | | | | TRIMMER CAPACITORS Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors.They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust trimmers. The process of adjusting them requires patience because the presence of your hand and the tool wil l slightly change the capacitance of the circuit in the region of the trimmer! Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small capacitances, normally less than 100pF. It is impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so they are usually specified by their minimum and maximum values, for example 2-10pF.Trimmers are the capacitor equivalent of  presets  which are miniature variable resistors. [pic] [pic] Trimmer Capacitor Symbol Trimmer Capacitor CAPACITOR NUMBER CODE A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult: †¢ the 1st number is the 1st digit, †¢ the 2nd number is the 2nd digit, †¢ The 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF. †¢ Ignore any letters – they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.For example:   Ã‚  102  Ã‚  Ã‚  means 1000pF = 1nF   Ã‚  (not 102pF! ) For example:   Ã‚  472J  means 4700pF = 4. 7nF (J means 5% tolerance). |Color Code | |Color |Number | |Black | 0 | |Brown |1 | |Red |2 | |Orange |3 | |Yellow |4 | |Green |5 | |Blue |6 | |Violet |7 | |Grey |8 | |White |9 | CAPACITOR COLOR CODE A color code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now obsolete, but of course there are many still around.The colors should be read like the resistor code, the top three color bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating). For example: Brown, black, orange  Ã‚   means 10000pF = 10nF = 0. 01 µF. Note that there are no gaps between the colors bands, so 2 identical bands actually appear as a wide band. For example: Wide red, yellow  Ã‚   means 220nF = 0. 22 µF. CHAPTER 6 TRANSISTORS INTRODUCTION Transistors amplify current, A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE. [pic] [pic] Transistor circuit symbols Types of transistor | | | | There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use NPN transistors. The leads are labeled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E). These terms efer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels. CONNECTING Transistors have three leads which must be connected the correct way round. Please take care with this because a wrongly connected transistor may be damaged instantly when you switch on. If you are lucky the orientation of the transistor will be clear from the PCB or strip board layout diagram, otherwise you will need to refer to a supplier's catalogue to identify the leads. The dr awings on the right show the leads for some of the most common case styles.Please note that transistor lead diagrams show the view from below with the leads towards you. This is the opposite of IC (chip) pin diagrams which show the view from above. [pic] TRANSISTOR CODES There are three main series of transistor codes used in the UK: ? Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478 the first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second letter indicates the type; for example C means low power audio frequency; D means high power audio frequency; F means low power high frequency. The rest of the code identifies the particular transistor.There is no obvious logic to the numbering system. Sometimes a letter is added to the end (e. g. BC108C) to identify a special version of the main type, for example a higher current gain or a different case style. If a project specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the general code is given (BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable. ? Codes beginning with TIP, for example TIP31A TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas Instruments Power transistor. The letter at the end identifies versions with different voltage ratings. ? Codes beginning with 2N, for example 2N3053The initial ‘2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system. CHOOSING A TRANSISTOR Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can usually substitute an equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The most important properties to look for are the maximum collector current IC and the current gain hFE. To make selection easier most suppliers group their transistors in categories determined either by their typical use or maximum power rating. NPN transistors | |Code | |PNP transistors | |Code |Structure | |Case  style |There is a diagram showing the lead s for some of the most common case styles in the Connecting section above.This information | | |is also available in suppliers' catalogues. | |IC max. |Maximum collector current. | |VCE max. |Maximum voltage across the collector-emitter junction. | | |You can ignore this rating in low voltage circuits. | |hFE |This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The guaranteed minimum value is given because the actual value varies | | |from transistor to transistor – even for those of the same type! Note that current gain is just a number so it has no units. | | The gain is often quoted at a particular collector current IC which is usually in the middle of the transistor's range, for | | |example ‘[email  protected]' means the gain is at least 100 at 20mA. Sometimes minimum and maximum values are given. Since the gain is | | |roughly constant for various currents but it varies from transistor to transistor this detail is only really of interest to | | |experts. | | | | | |Why hFE? | |It is one of a whole series of parameters for transistors, each with their own symbol. There are too many to explain here. | |Ptot max. |Maximum total power which can be developed in the transistor, note that a heat  sink will be required to achieve the maximum | | |rating. This rating is important for transistors operating as amplifiers; the power is roughly IC ? VCE. For transistors | | |operating as switches the maximum collector current (IC max. is more important. | |Category |This shows the typical use for the transistor, it is a good starting point when looking for a substitute. Catalogues may have | | |separate tables for different categories. | |Possible  substitutes |These are transistors with similar electrical properties which will be suitable substitutes in most circuits. However, they may | | |have a different case style so you will need to take care when placing them on the circuit board. | THE NPN TRANSISTORIn the previous tutorial we saw tha t the standard Bipolar Transistor or BJT comes in two basic forms. An NPN (Negative-Positive-Negative) type and a PNP (Positive-Negative-Positive) type, with the most commonly used transistor type being the NPN Transistor. We also learnt that the transistor junctions can be biased in one of three different ways – Common Base, Common Emitter and Common Collector. In this tutorial we will look more closely at the â€Å"Common Emitter† configuration using NPN Transistors with an example of the construction of a NPN transistor along with the transistors current flow characteristics is given below. pic] THE COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION As well as being used as a semiconductor switch to turn load currents â€Å"ON† or â€Å"OFF† by controlling the Base signal to the transistor in ether its saturation or cut-off regions, NPN Transistors can also be used in its active region to produce a circuit which will amplify any small AC signal applied to its Base terminal with the Emitter grounded. If a suitable DC â€Å"biasing† voltage is firstly applied to the transistors Base terminal thus allowing it to always operate within its linear active region, an inverting amplifier circuit called a single stage common emitter amplifier is produced.One such Common Emitter Amplifier configuration of an NPN transistor is called a Class A Amplifier. A â€Å"Class an Amplifier† operation is one where the transistors Base terminal is biased in such a way as to forward bias the Base-emitter junction. The result is that the transistor is always operating halfway between its cut-off and saturation regions, thereby allowing the transistor amplifier to accurately reproduce the positive and negative halves of any AC input signal superimposed upon this DC biasing voltage. Without this â€Å"Bias Voltage† only one half of the input waveform would be amplified.This common emitter amplifier configuration using an NPN transistor has many applications but is commonly used in audio circuits such as pre-amplifier and power amplifier stages. With reference to the common emitter configuration shown below, a family of curves known as the Output Characteristics Curves relates the output collector current, (Ic) to the collector voltage, (Vce) when different values of Base current, (Ib) are applied to the transistor for transistors with the same ? value. A DC â€Å"Load Line† can also be drawn onto the output characteristics curves to show all the possible operating points when ifferent values of base current are applied. It is necessary to set the initial value of Vce correctly to allow the output voltage to vary both up and down when amplifying AC input signals and this is called setting the operating point or Quiescent Point, Q-point for short and this is shown below. SINGLE STAGE COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT |[pic] | CHAPTER 7 CONDENSER MIC [pic] INTRODUCTION Microphones are a type of  transducer  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ a device w hich converts energy from one form to another.Microphones convert acoustical energy (sound waves) into electrical energy (the audio signal). Different types of microphone have different ways of converting energy but they all share one thing in common: The  diaphragm. This is a thin piece of material (such as paper, plastic or aluminum) which vibrates when it is struck by sound waves. In a typical hand-held mic like the one below, the diaphragm is located in the head of the microphone. LOCATION OF MICROPHONE DIAPHRAGM [pic] When the diaphragm vibrates, it causes other components in the microphone to vibrate.These vibrations are converted into an electrical current which becomes the audio signal. Note: At the other end of the audio chain, the loudspeaker is also a transducer – it converts the electrical energy back into acoustical energy. TYPES OF MICROPHONE There are a number of different types of microphone in common use. The differences can be divided into two areas: (a) T HE TYPE OF CONVERSION TECHNOLOGY THEY USE this refers to the technical method the mic uses to convert sound into electricity. The most common technologies are dynamic, condenser, ribbon and crystal.Each has advantages and disadvantages, and each is generally more suited to certain types of application. The following pages will provide details. (b) THE TYPE OF APPLICATION THEY ARE DESIGNED FOR some mics are designed for general use and can be used effectively in many different situations. Others are very specialized and are only really useful for their intended purpose. Characteristics to look for include directional properties, frequency response and impedance (more on these later). MIC LEVEL & LINE LEVEL The electrical current generated by a microphone is very small.Referred to as mic level, this signal is typically measured in mill volts. Before it can be used for anything serious the signal needs to be amplified, usually to line level (typically 0. 5 -2V). Being a stronger and mo re robust signal, line level is the standard signal strength used by audio processing equipment and common domestic equipment such as CD players, tape machines, VCRs, etc. This amplification is achieved in one or more of the following ways: †¢ Some microphones have tiny built-in amplifiers which boost the signal to a high mic level or line level. The mic can be fed through a small boosting amplifier, often called a line amp. †¢ Sound mixers have small amplifiers in each channel. Attenuators can accommodate mics of varying levels and adjust them all to an even line level. †¢ The audio signal is fed to a power amplifier – a specialized amp which boosts the signal enough to be fed to loudspeakers. Audio signal is fed to a power amplifier – a specialized amp which boosts the signal enough to be fed to loudspeakers. CONDENSER MICROPHONES Condenser  means  capacitor, an electronic component which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field.The term condenser  is actually obsolete but has stuck as the name for this type of microphone, which uses a capacitor to convert acoustical energy into electrical energy. Condenser microphones require power from a battery or external source. The resulting audio signal is stronger signal than that from a dynamic. Condensers also tend to be more sensitive and responsive than dynamics, making them well-suited to capturing subtle nuances in a sound. They are not ideal for high-volume work, as their sensitivity makes them prone to distort. HOW CONDENSER MICROPHONES WORK A capacitor has two plates with a voltage between them.In the condenser mic, one of these plates is made of very light material and acts as the diaphragm. The diaphragm vibrates when struck by sound waves, changing the distance between the two plates and therefore changing the capacitance. Specifically, when the plates are closer together, capacitance increases and a charge current occurs. When the plates are further apart, ca pacitance decreases and a discharge current occurs. A voltage is required across the capacitor for this to work. This voltage is supplied either by a battery in the mic or by external phantom power.Phantom power is a means of distributing a DC current through audio cables to provide power for microphones and other equipment. The supplied voltage is usually between 12 and 48 Volts, with 48V being the most common. Individual microphones draw as much current from this voltage as they need. [pic] THE ELECTRET CONDENSER MICROPHONE The Electret condenser mic uses a special type of capacitor which has a permanent voltage built in during manufacture. This is somewhat like a permanent magnet, in that it doesn't require any external power for operation.However good Electret condensers mics usually include a pre-amplifier which does still require power. Other than this difference, you can think of an Electret condenser microphone as being the same as a normal condenser. Technical Notes: †¢ Condenser microphones have a flatter frequency response than dynamics. A condenser mic works in much the same way as an electrostatic tweeter (although obviously in reverse) DIRECTIONAL PROPERTIES Every microphone has a property known as  directionality. This describes the microphone's sensitivity to sound from various directions.Some microphones pick up sound equally from all directions; others pick up sound only from one direction or a particular combination of directions. The types of directionality are divided into three main categories: 1. OMNI DIRECTIONAL Picks up sound evenly from all directions (Omni means â€Å"all† or â€Å"every†). 2. UNIDIRECTIONAL Picks up sound predominantly from one direction. 3. BIDIRECTIONAL picks up sound from two opposite directions. CHAPTER 8 IC LM386N [pic] INTRODUCTION The LM386 is a power amplifier designed for use in low voltage consumer applications.The gain is internally set to 20 to keep external part count low, but the a ddition of an external resistor and capacitor between pins 1 and 8 will increase the gain to any value from 20 to 200. The inputs are ground referenced while the output automatically biases to one-half the supply voltage. The quiescent power drain is only 24 mill watts when operating from a 6 volt supply, making the LM386 ideal for battery operation. FEATURES Battery operation Minimum external parts Wide supply voltage range: 4V–12V or 5V–18V Low quiescent current drain: 4mA Voltage gains from 20 to 200Ground referenced input Self-centering output quiescent voltage Low distortion: 0. 2% (AV = 20, VS = 6V, RL = 8W, PO =125mW, f = 1 kHz) Available in 8 pin MSOP package APPLICATION HINTS GAIN CONTROL To make the LM386 a more versatile amplifier, two pins (1 and 8) are provided for gain control. With pins 1 and 8 open the 1. 35 k? resistor sets the gain at 20 (26 dB). If a capacitor is put from pin 1 to 8, bypassing the 1. 35 k? resistor, the gain will go up to 200 (46 dB) . If a resistor is placed in series with the capacitor, the gain can be set to any value from 20 to 200.Gain control can also be done by capacitive coupling a resistor (or FET) from pin 1 to ground. Additional external components can be placed in parallel with the internal feedback resistors to tailor the gain and frequency response for individual applications. For example, we can compensate poor speaker bass response by frequency shaping the feedback path. This is done with a series RC from pin 1 to 5 (paralleling the internal 15 k? resistor). For 6 dB effective bass boost: R. 15 k? , the lowest value for good stable operation is R = 10 k? if pin 8 is open. If pins 1 and 8 are bypassed then R as low as 2 k? an be used. This restriction is because the amplifier is only compensated for closed-loop gains greater than 9. INPUT BIASING The schematic shows that both inputs are biased to ground with a 50 kW resistor. The base current of the input transistors is about 250 nA, so the inputs are at about 12. 5 mV when left open. If the dc source resistance driving the LM386 is higher than 250 kW it will contribute very little additional offset (about 2. 5 mV at the input, 50 mV at the output). If the dc source resistance is less than 10 kW, then shorting the unused input to ground will keep the offset low (about 2. mV At the input, 50 mV at the output). For dc source resistances between these values we can eliminate excess offset by putting a resistor from the unused input to ground, equal in value to the dc source resistance. Of course all offset problems are eliminated if the input is capacitive coupled. When using the LM386 with higher gains (bypassing the 1. 35 kW resistors between pins 1 and 8) it is necessary to bypass the unused input, preventing degradation of gain and possible instabilities. This is done with a 0. 1 ? F capacitor or a short to ground depending on the dc source resistance on the driven input.CHAPTER 9 EARPHONE [pic] INTRODUCTION Headphones are a pair of small loudspeakers, or less commonly a single speaker, held close to a user's ears and connected to a signal source such as an audio amplifier, radio, CD player or portable media player. They are also known as stereophones, headsets or, colloquially cans. The in-ear versions are known as earphones or earbuds. In the context of telecommunication, the term headset is used to describe a combination of headphone and microphone used for two-way communication, for example with a telephone.The telephone earpiece such as the one pictured at the right was common at the beginning of the 20th century. Headphones originated from the earpiece, and were the only way to listen to audio signals before amplifiers were developed. The first truly successful set was developed by Nathaniel Baldwin, who made them by hand in his kitchen and sold them to the U. S. Navy. Very sensitive headphones such as those manufactured by Brandes around 1919 were commonly used for early radio work. These early headphones used moving iron drivers, either single ended or balanced armature.The requirement for high sensitivity meant no damping was used, thus the sound quality was crude. They also had very poor comfort compared to modern types, usually having no padding and too often having excessive clamping force to the head. Their impedance varied; headphones used in telegraph and telephone work had an impedance of 75 ohms. Those used with early wireless radio had to be more sensitive and were made with more turns of finer wire; impedance of 1,000 to 2,000 ohms was common, which suited both crystal sets and triode receivers.In early powered radios, the headphone was part of the vacuum tube's plate circuit and had dangerous voltages on it. It was normally connected directly to the positive high voltage battery terminal, and the other battery terminal was securely earthed. The use of bare electrical connections meant that users could be shocked if they touched the bare headphone connections while adjusting an uncomfortable headset. APPLICATIONS Headphones may be used both with fixed equipment such as CD or DVD players, home theater, personal computers and with portable devices (e. g. igital audio player/mp3 player, mobile phone, etc. ). Cordless headphones are not connected via a wire, receiving a radio or infrared signal encoded using a radio or infrared transmission link, like FM, Bluetooth or Wi-Fi. These are actually made of powered receiver systems of which the headphone is only a component, these types of cordless headphones are being used more frequently with events such as a Silent disco or Silent Gig. In the professional audio sector headphones are used in live situations by disc jockeys with a DJ mixer and sound engineers for monitoring signal sources.In radio studios, DJs use a pair of headphones when talking to the microphone while the speakers are turned off, to eliminate acoustic feedback and monitor their own voice. In studio recordings, musicians and si ngers use headphones to play along to a backing track. In the military, audio signals of many varieties are monitored using headphones. Wired headphones are attached to an audio source. The most common connection standards are 6. 35mm ( ) and 3. 5mm TRS connectors and sockets. The larger 6. 35mm connector tending to be found on fixed location home or professional equipment.Sony introduced the smaller, and now widely used, 3. 5mm â€Å"minijack† stereo connector in 1979, adapting the older monophonic 3. 5mm connector for use with its Walkman portable stereo tape player and the 3. 5mm connector remains the common connector for portable application today. Adapters are available for converting between 6. 35mm and 3. 5mm devices. BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS [pic] Headphones may be used to prevent other people from hearing the sound either for privacy or to prevent disturbance, as in listening in a public library.They can also provide a level of sound fidelity greater than loudspeaker s of similar cost. Part of their ability to do so comes from the lack of any need to perform room correction treatments with headphones. High quality headphones can have an extremely flat low-frequency response down to 20  Hz within 3dB. However, rated frequency response distortion figures do not provide information on what character the sound reproduced at that frequency will be. Marketed claims such as ‘frequency response 4  Hz to 20  kHz' are usually overstatements; the product's response at frequencies lower than 20  Hz is typically very small.Headphones are also useful for video games that use 3D positional audio processing algorithms, as they allow players to better judge the position of an off-screen sound source (such as the footsteps of an opponent). Although modern headphones have been particularly widely sold and used for listening to stereo recordings since the release of the Walkman, there is subjective debate regarding the nature of their reproduction of stereo sound. Stereo recordings represent the position of horizontal depth cues (stereo separation) via volume differences of the sound in question between the two channels.When the sounds from two speakers mix, they create the phase difference the brain uses to locate direction. Through most headphones, because the right and left channels do not combine in this manner, the illusion of the phantom center can be perceived as lost. Hard panned sounds will also only be heard only in one ear rather than from one side. This latter point is of particular importance for earlier stereo recordings which were less sophisticated, sometimes playing vocals through one channel and music through the other.Binaural recordings use a different microphone technique to encode direction directly as phase, with very little amplitude difference (except above 2  kHz) often using a dummy head, and can produce a surprisingly life-like spatial impression through headphones. Commercial recordings almost alwa ys use stereo recording, because historically loudspeaker listening has been more popular than headphone listening. It is possible to change the spatial effects of stereo sound on headphones to better approximate the presentation of speaker reproduction by using frequency-dependent cross-feed between the channels, or—better still—aBlumlein shuffler (a custom EQ employed to augment the low-frequency content of the difference information in a stereo signal). While cross-feed can reduce the unpleasantness that some listeners find with hard panned stereo in headphones, the use of a dummy head during recording, with artificial pinnae, can allow on playback through headphones, the experience of hearing the performance as though situated in the position of the dummy head. Optimal sound is achieved when the dummy head matches the listener's head, since pinnae vary greatly in size and shape.Headsets can have ergonomic benefits over traditional telephone handsets. They allow cal l center agents to maintain better posture instead of tilting their head sideways to cradle a handset. Over time, headphone cables fail. The common scenario in which a replacement might need to be purchased is the physical breakdown of copper wiring at junction points on the cord (at the TRS jack, or at the point of connection to the headphone). These are the sites of greatest and most stressful motion on a cord and so they are typically fitted with some kind of strain relief.CHAPTER 10 APPLICATIONS,FUTURE SCOPE AND CONCLUSION APPLICATIONS IN SPY AGENCIES [pic] 1. To hear private conversations of anyone. 2. To caught anyone doing any illegal work. SOUND AMPLIFIER 1. To amplify the low power audio signals. 2. In hearing aids. SOME OTHER APPLICATIONS As a spy can be use in 1. Concert halls 2. Court houses 3. Conference rooms 4. Embassies 5. Government facilities 6. Recording studios. 7. In army. 8. Secret agencies. FUTURE SCOPE [pic]Spy ears are widely using in the spy agencies due to its amplifying capability of the low power audio signals into the high power audible audio signals due to this property of spy ears we can use it to hear the private conversations of anyone, In the present time spy ears are very popular to hear the private conversations and it can also be used as a hearing aid for the persons who do not have the ability to hear the voice correctly. Spy ears amplifies the sound so it amplify the sounds of low signal for the person and he can clearly hear the voice of the other person and other things.If we consider the future prospectus than we can imagine that spy ears will become very popular in the future due to its hiding capability because we all know that at what rate corruption and illegal things are increasing so due to help of this equipment we can hear the conversation of any suspicious person and stop him. Spy ear can easily hide so they are very difficult to find and the other person can not see it and we can easily hear the conversation of the peritcular person and he van not imagine than someone hearing his conversation and his secret is now opened.TYPES OF SPY EAR In the present condition spy ear are of two types: 1. Wired. 2. Wireless. 1. WIRED [pic] ? Wired spy ear for the short distance use only. ? We can only hear the sound of the person who is near the spy ear. ? Due to its short distance use they are now uses very less in compare to wireless spy ears. ? Wired spy ear can be used to hear the voice of the person at bus stop, school, colleges and many other places without getting his/her attention towards us. ? Wired spy ear can also be used as a hearing aid because of its audio amplifying capability.But if we see in present condition the use of wired spy ears is very less because wireless spy ears can cover a wide range than the wired spy ears, many spy agencies and private security forces use wireless spy ear for the long distance communication. 2. WIRELESS [pic] ? Wire less spy ears are widely using for th e long distance conversation due to its capability of receiving and sending signals from the long distance. ? Wire less spy ears are widely using in spy agencies and private security agencies to connect an long distance communication. ? Wire less spy ear consist of a receiving and a transmitting device. Both device are fabricated on the separate board so they have the property of long distance connectivity and the voice quality is also good. ? Wire less spy ears are also using with the mobile equipments. Transmitting device contain a sim and from our we call on it and after the connectivity we can hear and transmit our voice without getting the attention of the other person. CONCLUSION By the above all discussion at last we can say that the spy ear is very helpful at many levels such as PRIVATE LEVEL †¢ We can hear the conversation of our neighbours without getting their attention. We can hear the conversation of people at bus stop, school, colleges without looking towards them †¢ We can use it as h sound amplifier for low voice signals etc. COUNTRY LEVEL †¢ We can use spy ear to hear the conversation of any suspected person and can know that what is going on. †¢ We can use it against any corrupted person and send him in the jail. At last we can say that the spy ears are very helpful for private as well as national security purpose and in future they will become more popular due to there ability of hiding and catching low frequency voice signal. ———————– IASSCOM FORTUNE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY 1

Managing Financial Resources Master Research Paper

Managing Financial Resources Master - Research Paper Example Must Have Furnisher's current financial information (charts) can be found in Annex A of this report. All other charts and reports related to the projects to be examined and the company in question for the merger can also be found in Annex A. This report begins by comparing the profit/loss statement for the year ending 30/09/03. What follows is a bar graph that compares 2002 profit/loss and 2003 profit/loss. You may find the results quite startling. With sales and gross profit being higher in 2003 one would expect the operating profit to higher, but its not: The blue bars represent 2002's data and the reddish bars represent 2003's data. Sales were way up in 2003 as were cost of sales and gross profit. There is a considerable gap between 2002 and 2003 in sales and expenses. When you get down to the number that really counts, the operating profit, 2002 was a better year. 2003's data shows a 311% increase in sales, 466% more spent in cost of sales, etcBut, when you look at the final bars (operating profit) 2002 reported 674000 profit and 2003 reported 620000 profit. The company actually made less in 2003 (-54000) and spent considerably more in 2003. What hurt in 2003's numbers were the expenses such as bad debts, depreciation, selling expenses, and interest owed. It appears that the new p... The Simplified Balance Sheet (See Annex A) for Must Have Furnishers LTD tells more of the story. There are big number differences as seen in the prior graph only this time 2003 came out with the bigger numbers. Why Because the earlier chart gave a snapshot of one part of the business and the chart below gives a snapshot of the business as a whole and takes a look at such things as stock ownership to raise capital and expenditures for machines and equipment. The bars on the left represent 2002 data while the ones on the right represent 2003 data. The ratio of assets is .358911:1 and the ration of liabilities is .0625:1. The next graph shows the company's net worth (net assets minus long term liabilities): Column 1 is the company's 2002 net worth and column 2 is the company's 2003 net worth. Why is the company worth more in 2003 In 2002 the company had 60 stock holders and that number increased to 476 in 2003. One way of raising money (capital) to fund projects or growth is to sell more stock. This could work well or backfire. Selling more stock could make the stock price fall. The stock owners before the new sale would lose because their stock lost value and their percentage of ownership in the company dropped as well. This company also took on more debtors (1000). That raised the current assets for 2003. The net worth for the company increased from 1858 in 2002 to 2534 in 2003. That equates to roughly a 36% increase in net worth for the company. If the company could reduce its long term liabilities the profit margin would be greater. Also, the company needs to take a good look at the expenses 2002 vs. 2003. Lowering those expenses would raise the operating

Literature Review of Business Coaching Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Literature Review of Business Coaching - Essay Example In order to go through a brief overview, books, published articles, journals, and online sources have been consulted and an attempt has been made to discuss various coaching models to identify the competencies of Human Development Model as best practices for business coaching. 2. Coaching Clutterbuck & Megginson, (2005:7) defines that â€Å"Coaching is an opportunity to call halt to the frenetic pace of doing and to re-focus on being. It enables people to challenge their routines, to take a critical look at what they are doing and why, to identify and commit to new performance goals and to work out how to overcome the barriers that prevent them being more effective in their work roles". Executive coaching is an interim interactive course of action associated with a coach and a manager to enhance the efficient leadership capabilities through the process of self-awareness and execution of new behaviors. This coaching wires the managers to develop their knowledge, skills, tools, and pe rspectives in the course of assistance, encouragement, and response in the organizational perspective. According to Hall, Otazo, & Hollenbeck (1999), clarity, honesty, and innovations play the key role in successful coaching process but Pilette and Wingard (1997) had different assertion. They mentioned that perception styles, behaviors, and insight for change were the main elements of executive coaching. In literature, coaching and mentoring have been used by many writers interchangeably however there are many scholars who have differentiated them with respect to activities (Burdett 1998; Minter and Thomas 2000). King and Eaton (1999) have described the role of coaching as to support the employee in terms of his or her emotional state and remedial of short term personal problems which are hazards to his or her job performance while Burdett (1998) and Hansman (2002) have taken the mentoring as a long process that emphasizes on the career progression and issues related to different as pects of the whole life. Pearson (2001) agreed with King and Eaton (1999) and distinguished the two processes mainly on the basis of time. For him, mentoring has broad perspective and deals with long term arrangements while coaching (may be some external support and not be part of same organization) is a short term discipline with limited role for the instantaneous performance improvement of organization. He deduced that mentors council whereas coaches instruct their recipients. 3. Coaching: A Literature Review 3.1 Coaching Competencies, Skills, and Responsibilities: Competency is basically an ability of managers to do work at workplaces. Meyer (1996:34) defines competency as the â€Å"integration of knowledge, skill and value orientation, demonstrated to a defined standard in a specific context†. Smit and Cronje (2002:18) were agreed with Meyer and referred to a competency as the related skills, knowledge, and value orientation which a manager is supposed to do. For Weiss (2 003:10) a majority of managers who fail to perform well in a particular business environment, struggle not on account of less knowledge or technical expertise somewhat they struggle due to having a low level competencies. He further defines the competency

Tax Avoidance OR International Accounting Standards Dissertation

Tax Avoidance OR International Accounting Standards - Dissertation Example Thus, they maintain a liberal tax system for businesses and maintain a more stricter tax system for individuals. Due to this, most businesses have many options of manipulating tax law to their favour in order to pay less taxes. In principle, taxes are paid to promote social justice and assist the government and corporate sector to meet its objectives and needs. If an individual or business entity fails to pay taxes, they are liable to prosecution and this could result in fines or jail terms (Blankson, 2004: 3). This implies that although failure or refusal to pay taxes could have serious consequences, there are some kind of loopholes which can be explored by corporate entities in order to pay less taxes. The ACCA identifies that everyone must arrange his affairs to pay less taxes and it is not even a patriotic duty to pay more taxes (2009). This means that it might be desirable to arrange one's affairs to pay the minimum tax possible. James identifies that â€Å"tax avoidance involv es the taxpayer using the tax rules to his best advantage to minimise his tax liability† (2009: 129). Hence, the practice of tax avoidance entails the examination of the tax rules to identify the best way of arranging one's affairs to pay the least possible taxes. However, this theory seem to be in conflict with the normal view and spirit of taxation which is to promote social justice. ... It is said that the largest companies are the ones who hire the best tax lawyers and tax planners to cut down their taxes to the barest minimum (Sims, 2011). So in that case, is tax avoidance really legal or not? Aside that, how is tax avoidance carried out? What are the techniques and strong spots through which tax avoidance is carried out? In practice, what are the most dominant ways that are used by corporate entities to avoid taxes? 1.2 Aims and Objectives This research aims at â€Å"undertaking an enquiry into the concept of tax avoidance and an analysis of the techniques used and the main trends and activities that are used in carrying out tax avoidance†. In doing this the following objectives will be explored: 1. A critical review of the concept of tax avoidance and its relative position in the world of finance and business. 2. An examination of the main areas through which tax avoidance is carried out and the strategies used in carrying out tax avoidance. 3. Analysis o f the role of stakeholders: shareholders, employees and the public in the struggle for tax avoidance 4. A critical view of a moral approach to dealing with tax avoidance in the UK. 1.3 Research Design The research would focus mainly on a critical literature review for various levels of analyses. In arriving at this end, the research would involve a thorough examination of secondary sources like textbooks, journals and cases to ascertain the actual position of tax avoidance in the world of business. The critical review of literature will include an examination of authoritative text in ascertaining the most popular trends and systems that are used in reducing taxes in the corporate sector. This will involve the examination of the key elements and aspects of corporate tax

Gender Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Gender Communication - Essay Example However, the major difference that plays a role in determining the manner which men and women communicate is their sexes. In the recent years, linguistics have begun studying the differences in the communication styles, between a man and a woman. The main reason for carrying out these studies is for purposes of identifying the differences in the communication styles that exists between a man and a woman. This in turn would help both men and women to adapt with each other, and hence form a meaningful relationship (Berger, 2006). The differences in these communication affects men and women in a variety of ways, and this includes in any social set up, and examples include in a religious set up, at work, in sports, and even in academics. Therefore, having an understanding on the manner of managing these differences is important in developing a relationship between a man and woman. This paper examines the various differences that exist in the manner which both men and women communicate. The roles that women and men play, is reflected in the manner which they are able to interact with each other, and the methods that they use for purposes of interaction. One of the most important elements that exist in the communication methods of women is to establish and maintain relationship with other people. This is one of the most dominant methods of defining the feminine use of the process of interaction. Berger (2006) explains that women normally use language, for purposes of developing connection, maintaining a sense of closeness, understanding each other, and providing support to each other. These are some of the essential elements that are needed for any relationship to be formed. Berger (2006) further explains that women normally value creating equality through achieving of asymmetry. In their communication, women are also known for expressing their emotions, and using language that can help in

The Perfect Critique Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Perfect Critique - Assignment Example After the 4-minute period limit is over the conversation can start. This barrier zone can enable the learners to reflect on the items and enhance their ideas without being influenced by their friends. Developing references; often artists get inspired by other artists. As learners grow confidence in discussing their work and other artists work, they will grow their working knowledge of art history and artists (Lois pg 23). Critiques can work as a moment to initiate new concepts and artists or to draw links to art history and art movements. Social media; learners can use social media like Instagram, sound cloud, YouTube and twitter so as to share and comment on different media forms. Learners can create memes and enhance new trends, create blog posts and responses of video to artworks. Recording dialogue; have learners record themselves when they have their discussions. Make them keep the record of what they discussed throughout the semester. When they look at what they recorded, they could evaluate the manner in which they employ language in discussing artwork (Lois pg. 45). Learners will notice that they have access to critical dialogue and critical thinking. Student-centered critique; as learners enhance their critique abilities they can learn to contribute to a discussion of artwork without the presence of the teacher. The learners can carry out critiques where the teacher is just a mere observer (Lois pg 49). It can develop the public speaking ability, autonomous critical thinking, and confidence of the student. Cultural or historical links; historical artworks can get viewed as documents or key resources for historical occasions. Learners can use such historical links to direct their discussion. This can be in form of field trips to museum, research projects, visiting a local artist studio, field trips to historical landmarks or art practice based on community in which learners enhance, beautify, or activate their

Adherence Reaction Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Adherence Reaction Paper - Essay Example On Mondays and Fridays, I also include my vitamin B-6 tablet, which I am required to take twice per week. This concludes my morning routine, but not the medication regimen for the day. At night, I take another calcium carbonate and a capsule and a half of Zoloft, which, as it warns, does make me drowsy and helps me get to sleep at night. There are several things that help me adhere to this regimen. I have a pill caddy that I refill every week and carry with me everywhere I go. The rattle of it reminds me to check if I have taken my medication yet while the proper dosage of each pill for each day is already there for me. This is especially helpful for the odd B-6 pill that I am only supposed to take twice per week and is thus easy to forget. During the week, when I have a more regular schedule thanks to my volunteer job at the library, it is relatively easy to keep myself on this regimen. I have to get up at a specific time in the morning anyway in order to get ready for my ‘job’ and the evenings remain relatively quiet so that I can get enough sleep for tomorrow’s work. On the weekends, though, it becomes more difficult because I want to sleep in later, but still get hungry at the same time and I want to stay up later, but the Zoloft continues to make me sleepy. I am motivated to continue taking the medicine, though, out of fear of having a heart attack or simply not be capable of eating comfortably if that horrible heartburn feeling returns. At the same time, there are many things that make me wish I could just scrap the regimen altogether. When I am not volunteering, it is nice to lose all track of scheduling constraints. I like to sleep in late and take my time on various things. On these days, I am usually ravenously hungry when I wake up but have to put this on hold if I want my medications to be effective. This is

English paper book write up Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

English paper book write up - Essay Example All this changes when he meets a wannabe thug named Cleveland, and they explore a darker side of Pittsburgh together. Without any real direction, Art decides to discover a more dangerous life than what he had previously known. Art, being the son of a gangster, feels unable to express his sexual confusions openly with his family. The novel centers on the struggles of the protagonist as he searches for ways to satisfy his own desires while living up to his father’s expectations. As we find in the book, this isn’t a possibility. The book handles the issues of the main character’s sexuality very plausibly. The reader can feel his frustration and see his confusion as he goes back and forth between heterosexual lovers and homosexual lovers. Many of the characters, in fact, seem to have an overwhelming sense of uncertainty, except for Phlox and her unsympathetic views of homosexuals. The book relies heavily on its setting to influence the mood of the book. Growing in Pittsburgh himself and attending the University of Pittsburgh, Chabon was right at home as he was describing his characters walking through Oakland, Shadyside, Squirrel Hill, amongst other locations. The industrious nature of the city also adds to the rather bleak nature. The â€Å"cloud factory,† one of the many factories of Pittsburgh, also plays an important role later on in the book. Set in the mid-80’s the characters are constantly making pop-culture references, perhaps as an ode to Andy Warhol’s pop art as Warhol was another Pittsburgh native. Chabon’s prose is very fluid, and the descriptions he gives of the city of Pittsburgh paints the city very vividly. The bleak landscape becomes very real for the reader. However, sometimes his penchant for creating interesting writing goes too far, and some of the dialogue between characters tends to be lofty and unrealistic. This can be a bit

Psychology essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Psychology - Essay Example Normally, these performance appraisals tend to be â€Å"tick the box† exercise. This in essence creates anxiety on the side of the management and that of the employees. After the performance appraisal has been competed they should not be shelved until the next exercise but they should be looked at immediately to allow for appropriate review actions. This can help employees improve their performance. In most cases, problematic feedbacks are usually postponed or hidden or sometimes cheated about when filling the performance Appraisal form. Majority of managers do not want to report that those under them are not performing well for the fear of being responsible of their lack of promotion or a pay rise. The performance appraisal should be objective in nature. This is to say that, they should be full of professional perspectives and should not have any personal views. Usually personal views in the performance appraisals are biased and this is very detrimental. The process of perfor mance appraisal should not come as a surprise to the employees. This is because, if all emphasis is placed on the process then, there is a possibility of generating tension at the build up phase. This can also reduce motivation on the side of the employees, which as a result can lead to decreased productivity. Majority of the employees in the organization should be satisfied with the performance appraisal processes. An appropriate performance appraisal should be a truly consented abstract of what has been going on continuously in the organization between appraisals. Surely, if the appraisal process is reviewed twice or thrice annually, all the chances to sustain and direct the workers to get better are missed. This is because managing of people is a continuous process and not a one-time activity. The managers should not put more focus on the process alone as this is very dangerous but they should rather look at the continuing performance management. The managers should place their e mphasis on the reason why the performance appraisals are carried out. The main purpose why appraisals are conducted is to help employees become more effective. They also help the managers manage those under them well. The performance appraisal process should be an exercise that tries to unearth the truth about an individual’s performance on the work function assigned in the organization and therefore it should be realistic and clear. Briefly, a sound performance appraisal should be unbiased and purposely a continuous two way and specific process. It should not be an exercise that brings in fear and embarrassment to the employees but an exercise that motivates them. Part 2 Recommendations about how the success of a new performance appraisal process should be evaluated The success of a new performance appraisal process can be evaluated through various ways namely: Peer evaluations The organization can form a task force of four to seven employees. The mandate of the task force s hould be to set a peer evaluation program. The task force should be to set targets and objectives of the evaluation program and can carry out a pilot program. When conducting the pilot program, participants can be persuaded to offer feedback on whether the performance measurement system is good. This is because pilot program is significant for a new performance

Student Learning Essay Example for Free

Student Learning Essay Student learning can be identified as seven types of learning which are competence, self-regulation and control of behavior, sharing, individuation, goal planning, challenge, and self-change, may function at different times where and when appropriate, and serve to balance and reinforce student learning (Sharon, Coulter). Significance of Study Students who live in poverty need instruction that leads them toward constructing knowledge, first through their strength of observation and then from their strong sensory background. Because students rely heavily upon how they have been socialized in their culture, during the learning process at school, student engagement might look as though it is lacking. Instruction for these students needs to be centered on their strengths and attention given to their weaknesses in regards to providing an accepting atmosphere for learning. The greatest cause of failure with students in generational poverty is the attempt by many teachers to remain seemingly neutral and accepting of the noticeable failure rates with regards to the student’s inability to connect with the curriculum and learn as other students are able to do. How can we understand why so many students fail to learn what the mainstream schools think they are teaching unless we can get a perspective from the learners and see the world through their eyes? The intentions of this study were to provide educators with an understanding of student learning in generational poverty. Finally, the results have provided a framework for understanding what types of instructional practices are effective with impoverished students. Teacher education programs, educational leaders and policy makers that are in the market for tested strategies that increase the academic prowess of impoverished students can utilize this framework to bring about significant changes in how educators, policy makers, business people and the general public view the ability of the disadvantaged to learn. Chapter 2-LITERATURE REVIEW One goal of education is to ensure that every student has a chance to excel both in school and in life. There are factors that prevented education from serving this role. Too many children enter school with significant barriers to achieving their full potential. According to Lee and Burkam (2002), children from poverty may especially have early educational lags. They describe students from families of low socioeconomic status with significant gaps in school readiness as they began kindergarden. These economically disadvantaged children lagged behind their more advantaged peers in skills and exposure to language (University of California, 2002). In fact, economically disadvantaged children score significantly lower on reading, math, and vocabulary tests when compared with otherwise similar non-poor children (Sherman, 1998). As a result, there is an increasing number of children in school who face challenges, such as coming to school hungry, sleepy, depressed, abused, or angry. These conditions affect their engagement in the learning process which can ultimately affect their academic progress (Lawson Briar-Lawson, 1997). In Clark’s (1983) intense study of ten poor African-American families and their children, he discovered that neither family income level, nor family educational level determines a child’s school performance. He concluded that â€Å" . . . it is the overall quality of a family’s life style, nor the composition, or status, or some subset of family process dynamics, that determines whether children are prepared for academically competent performance in the classroom† (p. 1). According to Lawson and Briar-Lawson (1997), students of economically disadvantaged parents experience challenges in school. Specifically, these children usually do not reach their full potential in school because they disrupt classrooms and are eventually labeled at-risk. This can lead to a transfer to special classes. Their issues have the potential to get progressively worse as many students become truant, suspended, and eventually drop out of school. According to the Children’s Defense Fund (2005), there is little relief in sight. Since reaching a low point in 2000, the number of children living in poverty in the United States has grown by 12. 8 percent exceed 13 million. Poor families and children are being left behind as the benefits of a steadily growing economy fail to trickle down. Poverty is officially measured by the family’s annual income. The determination of the poverty thresholds is based on a model created during 1960s that estimates the cost of an adequate family food budget. Poverty can result in several disadvantages for children, including alack of health insurance, inadequate education, and poor nutrition (Children’s Defense Fund, 2005). The negative influence that low socioeconomic status has on academic achievement can be devastating (Brooks-Gunn Duncan, 1997, Duncan, Yeung, Brooks-Gunn Smith, 1996). This impact may be strongest during children’s earlier years (Duncan, Yeung, Brooks-Gunn Smith, 1996), Bradley, Corwyn, Burchinal, Pipes-McAdoo and Garcia-Coll, C. 2001) According to the National Center for Education Statistics, (2000), only 19 percent of children from families of low socioeconomic status have the requisite pre-literacy skills when entering kindergarten. Of fourth-graders from the same socioeconomic background, only 2 percent scored as advanced readers and 12 percent as proficient readers on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (2000) evaluation. Numerous factors contribute to the connection between low socioeconomic status and educational outcomes including birth weight, nutrition, and access to health care (Bradley Corwyn, 2002). These factors can also impact a child’s cognitive functioning an, in turn, educational achievement (Brody, G. H. , Flor, D. L. , Gibson, N. M. , 1999). Children from low-income families struggle academically, especially with early reading skills (Tivnan Hemphill, 2005). On the most recent national assessments of fourth grade reading, 54 percent of children who were eligible for free and reduced lunch scored at the lowest performance level in comparison to 23 percent of non-poverty children (Grigg, Danne, Jin, Campbell, 2003). A press release, The State of Children from The Children’s Defense Fund, attempted to articulate the growing development poverty and demonstrated the lack of progress in this area. In his January 20, 1937 inaugural speech, President Francklin Roosebelt stated,†I see a great nation, upon a great continent, blessed with a great wealth on natural resources. But here is the challenge to our democracy: In this nation I see millions of families trying to live on income so meager that pall of family disaster hangs over them day by day† (The Library of Congress, 2005). According to the Children’s Defense Fund (2004), over 37 million people, including over 12 million American children, live in poverty. The State of Children from The Children’s Defense Fund (2004) indicated that there are too many poor and minority students who confront significant barriers to achieving their fullest potential. Several examples of the disparity between children with opportunity and without opportunity based upon poverty include: in writing, only 15 percent of those fourth graders eligible for free and reduced lunch can write at grade level compared to 42 percent of those who are not eligible (U. S. Department of Education, 2003b). The Condition of Education 2004 (U. S. Department of Education, 2004b), reported â€Å"In addition to being more likely than White students to be from low- income families, Black and Hispanic students are more likely to be concentrated in high-poverty schools† (p. 4). In 2003, as the proportion of the number of students eligible for free and reduced lunch.

Think Tanks in the United States Essay Example for Free

Think Tanks in the United States Essay A think tank (also known as a policy center) is a non-profit research institution that conducts studies on public policy (Columbia University Libraries, n. pag.). Aside from public policy analysis, a think tank also engages in developing solutions for national or commercial problems (Rohrer, n. pag.). Although there are some think tanks that are strictly nonpartisan (their research on public policy issues are not affected by political outcomes), think tanks are generally regarded as organizations that provide intellectual support to political parties and or politicians. Hence, a think tank is considered as an important part of the American political scene (Columbia University Libraries, n. pag.). However, think tanks affect American foreign policy and economic development abroad by coming up with ethnocentric and xenophobic perspectives. In some cases, American think tanks create unsustainable, violent and even genocidal policies, majority of which the US government imposes on Third World countries. Worse, the civilian nature of these organizations allows them to escape accountability for their detrimental ideas (Hayes, 3).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the article A Litany of Horrors: America’s University of Imperialism (2008), Chalmers Johnson wrote that the RAND Corporation, one of the oldest existing think tanks in the US, was â€Å"the premier think tank for the US’ role as hegemon of the Western world (Johnson, n. pag.). To support his argument, Johnson detailed the history of RAND’s active participation in US military intervention since it was founded after World War II. During the Cold War, RAND perpetuated the â€Å"arms race† between the US and the Soviet Union by urging the latter to create huge demands for weapons such as atomic bombs, nuclear submarines, intercontinental ballistic missiles and long-range bombers. In the 1960s and the 1970s, RAND’s anti-Marxist rhetoric heavily influenced the US to get involved in the Vietnam War and to establish puppet governments in Third World countries that included the Philippines, Thailand, Chile and Taiwan (Johnson, n. pag.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   RAND was also heavily involved in the Iraq War in 2002. During 9/11, former Defense Secretary Frank Carlucci was the co-chair of the RAND Center for Middle East Public Policy Advisory Board and was also a member of the RAND Board of Trustees. However, he was likewise the chairman of the Carlyle Group, a defense contractor with strong connections to the Saudi Royal Family and the Bin Laden clan. Other key players in the Iraq War that held important positions in the RAND Corporation were Paul Wolfowitz, Condoleeza Rice and Donald Rumsfeld (Here in Reality, n. pag.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Aside from the RAND Corporation, other American think tanks that were also occupied with the promotion of American foreign policy and economic development abroad were the National Institute for Public Policy (NIPP) and the Project for a New American Century (PNAC). Akin to RAND, the administration of the NIPP and the PNAC are both composed of unilateralist ideologues, most of which are former executives, consultants or major shareholders of the country’s biggest defense contractors. Some of the individuals who were connected to these think tanks went on to become government officials. Hence, it should no longer come as a surprise if US military intervention has increased in the previous decades (Ciarrocca Hartung, n. pag.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The NIPP has strong ties with the nuclear weapons industry. Most of the members of its advisory board were formerly connected with the arms and nuclear divisions of major defense contractors. Kathleen Bailey, for instance, worked as an analyst for the Lawrence Livermore nuclear weapons laboratory for six years. Robert Barker, meanwhile, worked for the weapons laboratory of Lawrence Livermore for 30 years. Charles Kupperman was Lockheed Martin’s vice president for its national missile defense programs (Ciarrocca Hartung, n. pag.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The leadership of the PNAC is made up of William Kristol (editor of the Weekly Standard), Robert Kagan (senior associate at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, contributing editor at the Weekly Standard and columnist for the Washington Post) and Bruce Jackson (a longtime Lockheed Martin executive). Founded in 1997, PNAC’s principles were based on â€Å"the Reagan administration’s success (in ending the Cold War)† and called for the revival of â€Å"a military that is strong and ready to meet both present and future challenges† (Ciarrocca Hartung, n. pag.). It must be noted that the founding document of PNAC was signed by major players in the Bush national security team, such as Paul Wolfowitz, Dick Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld. Furthermore, PNAC’s deputy director Thomas Donnelly was hired by Lockheed Martin in 2003 (Ciarrocca Hartung, n. pag.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Given the background of RAND, PNAC and NIPP, it is very clear that there is a conflict between the objectives of think tanks and American foreign policy (which focused mainly on promoting American values abroad). Most of the think tanks that are affiliated with the US government are also connected with companies that benefit financially from war. It is therefore just a matter of common logic to assume that think tanks like RAND, PNAC and NIPP will advise the US government to wage war on other countries (no matter how flimsy the justification is) simply because the defense contractors that they are connected with will earn immensely from doing so.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Furthermore, there are some US politicians who are likewise affiliated with organizations that profit from war. Former President George Bush, Sr., for instance, is a former Senior Advisor in the Carlyle Group. Former Secretary of State and Secretary of Treasury James Baker, meanwhile, was former Carlyle Senior Counselor. Carlyle Managing Director Richard Darman also happens to be the White House Budget Advisor (Here in Reality, n. pag.). It is very obvious that their affiliation to Carlyle makes them view war as an avenue for profit, and not as an atrocity that claims countless innocent lives.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   While think tanks are excellent sources of information and ideas, conflict of interest arises when these institutions affect government policy. Think tanks doing business and making money while advising the US government at the same time should be considered as a grave cause of concern. Indeed, what will think tanks do when private business clash with public policy? What will be their stand when the very same government official that they supported is criticized for applying the ideas that they have formulated? Works Cited Ciarrocca, Michelle and Hartung, William. â€Å"The Military-Industrial-Think Tank Complex:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Corporate Think Tanks and the Doctrine of Aggressive Militarism.† January-February The Business of War. 9 June 2008 http://www.multinationalmonitor.org/mm2003/03jan-feb/jan-feb03corp2.html. Hayes, Peter. â€Å"The Role of Think Tanks in Defining Security Issues and Agendas.† Nautilus Institute. 21 October 2004. 8 June 2008 www.nautilus.org/collaborative/essay/2004/1021_Hayes.pdf.   Johnson, Chalmers. â€Å"A Litany of Horrors: America’s University of Imperialism.† 29 April TomDispatch.com. 8 June 2008 http://www.tomdispatch.com/post/174925/chalmers_johnson_teaching_imperialism_101. â€Å"Meet the Carlyle Group.† n.d. Here in Reality. 09 June 2008 http://www.hereinreality.com/carlyle.html. Rohrer, Finlo. â€Å"Just What Is A Think Tank?† 15 January 2008. BBC News. 08 June 2008   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7189094.stm. â€Å"The People We Pay to Think.† n.d. Here in Reality. 09 June 2008   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.hereinreality.com/news/rand.html. â€Å"Think Tanks Policy Centers.† n.d. Columbia University Libraries – Lehman Social Sciences Library. 08 June 2008 http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/lehman/guides/ttanks.html.